Bioethics for the world

354 which has a course in forensic biology and toxicology. Forensic entomology is potentially useful in cases of child neglect (Benecke & Lessig, 2001) and neglect of the elderly (Benecke et al, 2004), in addition to cases of murder. Similarly, palynology, the analysis of pollen and spores in criminal investigations, can complement forensic DNA by either proving or disproving that people or objects were in a particular place in a certain timeframe. In some cases, pollen evidence can link a person with a precise location, although more often it may be a broad region covering many square kilometres. Although it is reported to have been used as early as 1959, palynology first came to public prominence by its absence in the doublemurder trial of O.J. Simpson in 1995. Testimony suggested that the murderer probably hid in the bushes outside the Simpson home, in which case pollen from nearby flowers could have brushed off on the assailant’s clothing. If this had been discovered and tested, a pollen fingerprint might have helped to establish Simpson’s innocence or guilt. He was acquitted in 1995, although he was later found liable in a civil trial. Palynology was used in another infamous case involving a boy—christened Adam by UK police—whose torso was found in the Thames River in London in September 2001. Although the boy was found in a body bag without head, arms or legs, his African origin suggested that he might have been the victim of a ritual killing. The first clues came from analysing the pollen contents of the boy’s digestive tract. Spores from plants like alder—common in the UK—were found in the lower intestine, suggesting that Adam had been in the country for at least three days. This started a large-scale investigation, and subsequent analysis of Adam’s mitochondrial DNA and the mineral content of his bones led police towards his origins in Nigeria. So far, his killer has not been identified. Similar to entomology, forensic pollen analysis involves carefully sifting through evidence, as the nature of the pollen and its method of dispersal are important factors. One particular strength of palynology is that it can associate objects and people with places. It has been used, for example, to identify fake paintings. Dirt and dust trapped between a picture frame and canvas contain pollen and spores that accumulate while the picture is being painted and indicate where this took place. If this is a location where the artist was known to not have been at the time, it suggests the work is a fake. At present, forensic entomology and palynology are mainly confined to serious crimes in which death has occurred. In the case of DNA analysis, cost and lengthy testing times have also confined its application to serious crimes. But for DNA this could change soon. “These techniques are likely to shift down to general property crime,” said Barton, assuming that the police want to investigate such crimes thoroughly. This requires more people trained in forensic science. Although there has been a recent boom in the number of both forensicscience undergraduate courses and students, doubts persist whether these courses produce people with the combination of scientific, legal and investigative skills required by police forces and testing laboratories, or to become a consultant. “These graduates are often trained as chemists with forensic science as an attractive and popular alibi,” said Pierre Margot, director of the School of Criminal Sciences at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. He contends that it is counterproductive to dress chemistry up in trendy clothes to attract young people into science. Instead, forensic courses should be multidisciplinary, albeit with chemistry and biology having an important role. At Murdoch University, students are encouraged to take double or even triple degrees combining two science majors, such as biomedical science and molecular biology with a minor in criminology, Barton explained. According to Olivia Corcoran, senior lecturer in forensics at the University of East London, UK, good forensic-science graduates will find a growing range of job opportunities outside pure science: “With good analytical skills, graduates can apply to pharmaceuticals, food industry labs, consumer watchdog associations, and so on.” Although the allure of high-profile criminal cases makes forensic-science courses attractive, the bulk of the field will lie in the realm of less serious crimes or other analytical applications.